tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-18188413638596552372024-02-08T11:07:37.203-08:00Computer Science and ElectronicsNACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.comBlogger29125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-86610318791185692942012-10-05T03:10:00.003-07:002012-10-05T03:10:27.699-07:00Design pattern<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Objected oriented design pattern
is an important branch in computer engineering. Here solutions are expressed in
terms of objects and interfaces. The four elements of a typical design pattern
are pattern name, problem, solution and consequences. Pattern name, usually a
single word or two words describes a design problem, solutions and possible
consequences. Problem component explains how and when to apply the pattern. The
solution describes the elements that constitute design, relationship between
different elements, responsibilities and collaborations of these elements. The
consequences are the results after the execution of the pattern. In Lexi’s user
interface, seven design problems exist. They are document structure,
formatting, embellishing the user interface, supporting multiple look-and-feel
standards, supporting multiple window systems, user operations and spelling
checking and hyphenation. Recursive composition is a term used in design
pattern which is a method for the representation of hierarchically structured
information.</div>
</div>
NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-65282692075113347712012-08-02T03:19:00.001-07:002012-08-02T03:19:12.253-07:00Servers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Server provides
requested service to the client. Server and client are the two important
components of a network. Some examples of servers are mail server, fax server,
web server, database server, directory services server, file server, print
server, application server, transaction server and groupware server. Mail
server is a machine which is used to manage the flow of electronic mail
(e-mail), messaging and communication with main frame systems on large-scale
networks. For sending and receiving faxes through a single network connection,
fax servers are used. Web servers are used for storing and retrieving internet
data. Database server is used for providing data to clients on request.
Directory services server is used when data is stored in multiple servers. A
file server stores all the files. Print servers are used for the control of
printers. For accessing centralized application software, application server is
used. The data and remote procedures are embedded in transaction server.
Groupware server facilitates people to people contact. Some important
principles behind client/server systems are hardware and software independence,
open access to services, process distribution and standards. </span></div>
</div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-81523585506401026442012-07-23T23:06:00.001-07:002012-07-23T23:06:17.708-07:00Patterns<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span class="prs"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">A pattern is a three part rule, which expresses a relation between a
certain context, a problem and a solution. A pattern addresses a recurring
design problem that arises in specific design situations, and presents a
solution to it. Patterns are very much effective in identifying and specifying
abstractions that are above the level of single classes and instances. Thus
patterns provide a common effective vocabulary and understanding for design
principles. Context, problem and solution are the three parts of a pattern.
Context is a situation which gives rise to a problem. There are three
categories in patterns. They are architectural patterns, design patterns and
idioms. Architectural patterns which are templates for concrete software
architecture provides a set of predefined subsystems, with specific mention of
their responsibilities and includes rules and regulations for organizing the relationship
between them. Design patterns are medium scale patterns which provide a scheme
which refines the subsystems. Idioms deal with the implementation of particular
design issues. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Kartika;"></span></div>
</div>
NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-8022490384435377182012-05-25T02:16:00.002-07:002012-05-25T02:16:30.488-07:00Watchdog timer<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; line-height: 115%;">Microcontrollers contain
timers. Some of them contain two types of timer and some five types. The five
types of timer are watchdog timer, basic timer, real time clock, timer A and
timer B. A watchdog timer protects the system against software malfunctions. It
can also be used as an interval timer, if system is not required of any
protection. Watchdog timer operation is controlled by a 16 bit register WDTCTL.
The microcontroller is also contains a watchdog counter which is invisible to
the user and is a 16 bit register WDTCNT. The watchdog become active once the
microcontroller is reset. If the watchdog is in running mode, counter should be
cleared every time to prevent it counting to limit values. This task is known
as petting, kicking or feeding the dog.<span>
</span>Normally a microcontroller resets itself whenever the watchdog counter
reaches its limit. A basic timer provides the clock for the LCD module and thus
generates periodic interrupts. A real time clock is used for the counting of
seconds, minutes, hours, days, months and years. Timer A is a general purpose
timer. Timer B is provided on large microcontrollers. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br /></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-63868748994842481332012-05-07T00:17:00.002-07:002012-05-07T00:17:24.244-07:00Data communication and networking<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Data communication is
an essential task in a computer. Some channels are employed to transmit digital
signals over computer networks. The efficiency of the transmission channel
depends upon the characteristics of the channel. Different channels employed
nowadays are two wire open lines, coaxial cables, twisted-pair cables and fiber
optic cables. Two wire open line is a simple transmission channel with two open
wire lines. Here some pairs of metallic wires made up of copper or aluminium
that are insulated from each other are used. Three different configurations of
two wire open lines are simple wire pair, flat ribbon connector and multicore
cable. Normally, two wire open lines are used for the transmission of data in
short distances. Coaxial cable channel provides higher speed over longer
distance. Coaxial cable consists of four parts namely, core, insulator,
conductor and protective sheath. The two types of coaxial cables are baseband
and broadband. Twisted-pair cable consists of a pair of insulated copper wires
which are twisted together in helical form. Two types of twisted-pair cables
are shielded and unshielded. Telephone networks use such cables. Fiber optic
cable consists of a core, cladding and a jacket. Long distance transmission is
easily possible with fiber optic cables. But they are expensive. Highly skilled
man power required for maintenance and installation of fiber optic cables.</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-31879311654465557182012-04-29T23:02:00.000-07:002012-04-30T02:03:44.957-07:00Computer aided drawing<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: large;">Computer engineers, civil engineers and mechanical engineers
are very much interested in computer graphics since it reduces their workload
while undergoing complex projects. Graphical Kernel System (GKS) is the first
graphics package developed by International Standards Organization (ISO) and
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Then came PHIGS (Programmer’s
Hierarchical Interactive Graphics Standard) package. Some other graphics
packages are Silicon graphics GL package, OpenGL, Pixar RenderMan interface and
PostScript interpreters. Computer aided design is a tool for engineers in the
design of buildings, automobiles, aircraft, spacecraft, watercraft, textile
industry etc. Multiwindow environment is a key feature of CAD software
packages. For testing performance of a device or a system, real time animations
are employed. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">These animations can be
displayed on a video monitor. CAD also plays a good role in presentation
preparation. Presentation graphics are used for bar charts, line graphs,
surface graphs and pie charts. Computer graphics methods are also used for fine
art and commercial art applications. Packages like LUMENA, PixelPaint,
SuperPaint, Mathematica etc. are used for this. Nowadays computer graphics is
widely used in the field of entertainment for making motion pictures, music
videos and television shows. Computer graphics is also used in the field of
education and training, visualization and in image processing. </span></span></div>
</div>
</div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-26262437823122930562012-04-22T23:58:00.002-07:002012-04-22T23:58:47.803-07:00Read only memory (ROM)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">ROM plays a major role in digital electronics and computers. It is a general purpose code conversion unit where large scale integration is carried out. The input addressing in a ROM are generally termed as linear addressing. A ROM is generally composed of a decoder (AND logic) and an encoder (OR logic). Encoder block hardware is comprised of a functional relationship between the output and input. This is a permanent relationship which cannot be erased or modified. Commonly used ROMs are having sizes in the range 256 to 64K bits with 4 or 8 output lines. 256 kb ROMs are used in VLSI. For the construction of a ROM, diodes, BJTs or MOSFETs are used. BJTs and MOSFETs are more preferred than diodes. Commonly used ROM consists of an array of MOSFETs where gate oxide thicknesses are varied suitably for different devices to facilitate an efficient layout for the ROM encoder. This helps to achieve high storage capacity in a limited volume. ROMs are widely used nowadays in code conversion, waveform generation, look-up tables, sequence generation, display drivers, combinational logic and character generation. There are three types pg programmable ROMs. They are ultraviolet erasable PROM (UVPROM), electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) and fusible PROM (FPROM). </span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-32771715908995799382012-03-12T02:42:00.002-07:002012-03-12T02:42:36.353-07:00Computer ports<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Computer ports allows user to connect various devices to computer. Interfacing computer with different devices is a difficult task without proper ports. Some commonly used ports are keyboard port, mouse port, USB ports, power point port, network port, serial port, parallel port, audio input port, microphone port, modem port, TV port, video port and speaker port. Serial ports are used to connect devices which can send and receive data bit-by-bit on a single wire. Serial ports take more time for the transfer of data. A parallel port supports connection to devices that can send and receive the data in 8 or 16 bits. Small computer system interface (SCSI) is a parallel interface used for attaching peripheral devices like printers and disk drives. SCSI is capable of extending the system bus outside the computer via a cable. USB is universal serial bus which is swappable. Fire wire is another single port widely in use. MIDI is musical instrument digital interface which is used for the interfacing of musical instruments. </span></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-6814375427447941102012-03-02T20:26:00.002-08:002012-03-02T20:26:48.621-08:00Computer monitors<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:RelyOnVML/> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Computer monitors serves the purpose of display. It is an important output device which usually wrapped in a plastic or metal case. The combination of monitor and keyboard is called as video display terminal of a computer. There are three varieties in this category. They are monochrome monitors, gayscale monitors and colour monitors. Monochrome monitors are very rare nowadays since they can display the text in only one colour with a black background. In grayscale monitors, white background is used. Texts can be displayed in more than one shades ranging from light gray to black. Colour monitors can display texts and images in up to 16 million colours. Different technologies used in monitors are Cathode ray tube (CRT) technology, Flat panel (Liquid crystal), field emission and electroluminescence. <span> </span>The major components of a CRT monitor are electron gun, deflection plates and phosphor coated screen. Liquid crystal technology is used in flat panel monitors. The two varieties of flat panel LCD monitors are passive matrix LCD monitor and active matrix LCD monitor. Intermediation between CPU and monitor is carried out by a video card which is a physical hardware circuit board carefully connected to the motherboard. VGA (Video Graphics Array) and super VGA are the popular video cards now in use. Both video cards support 256 colours. </span></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-57760175132356868792012-02-06T22:10:00.001-08:002012-02-06T22:10:07.387-08:00Network servers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:RelyOnVML/> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Computer is an essential component of any organization now. An interconnection of two or more computers using a communication media is known as computer network. There exist many methods of networking such as Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN) etc. For any network, a network server is an essential element. A network server is a powerful personal computer to which many personal computers and peripheral devices such as scanners and printers are connected. The network server acts like a central unit for storage of data and programs. Network server permits sharing of these data and programs to various personal computers connected to it. Network server allows all users connected to it to use printers, computers, files etc. that are shared. The data and programs which are frequently accessed and used can be stored in network server which avoids the duplication of data and software. </span></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-8097170268182496132011-12-20T02:17:00.001-08:002011-12-20T02:17:49.719-08:00Point to point protocol (PPP)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:RelyOnVML/> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Internet use point to point protocol for serving many purposes. For router to router traffic and home user to ISP traffic, point to point protocol is essential. Point to point protocol is clearly defined in RFC 1661, RFC 1662 and RFC 1663. RFC stands for Request For Comments. This protocol effectively handles many tasks such as error detection, supporting multiple protocols, allowing IP addresses to be negotiated at connecting time, permitting authentication etc. In point to point protocol, a framing method which explicitly outlines the end of one frame and the start of the next one. This format is effective in handling error detection too. Point to point protocol is a link control protocol which can be used for bring lines up, testing them, negotiating options and finally bringing them down. This feature of point to point protocol is also referred as link control protocol (LCP). Link control protocol supports synchronous and asynchronous circuits and bit-oriented encodings. For individual independent network layers, network control protocol is used for negotiation. Point to point protocol is character oriented and uses byte stuffing on dial up modem lines. Point to point protocol is also used for high level data link control (HDLC) bit serial lines and synchronous optical network (SONET). <span> </span></span></b><span style="color: #343434;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-59217108544967474012011-12-12T03:04:00.005-08:002011-12-12T03:04:28.899-08:00Modem<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:RelyOnVML/> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Modems are important tools in networking. Commonly used modems are low-cost chips. A technique called frequency shift keying is used in modems. Frequency shift keying scheme transmits sinusoidal tones which are effective for analog phone lines. These sinusoidal tones create chirping sound which is characteristic of every modem. For the transmission of audio signals, analog input is sampled and sent to two digital filters. The filter ouput is fed to detectors where the computation of the average value of the signal over the past n samples is carried out. Although the transmitting and receiving modems are isolated and not synchronized, both agree in advance on the length of the time during which a bit will be transmitted. The modem will never implement a hardware interface to telephone line or software for dialing a phone number. The modem is composed of a small subsystem and two major subsystems. The small subsystem deals the interrupt handlers for the samples. Transmitter and receiver are acting as the two major subsystems. </span></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-21847495999920998722011-11-28T22:10:00.001-08:002011-11-28T22:10:40.160-08:00Inverse transducers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]--> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Transducers that work in a reverse mode are called inverse transducers or output transducers. Transducers which are used for the determination of nonelectrical parameters can be used as inverse transducers if they display superlative performance in its operation when the input and output quantities are reversed. This type of system is very much required when we have to convert variables like linear displacement, angular displacement, torque, force etc. to electrical signals. Here accuracy of feedback measuring systems is very important and significant and it depends on the characteristics of the physical system which is used for the conversion of the output signal into a signal of desirable form and dimensions for comparison by the comparator. The different quantities usually compared are torque, force, pressure and position. According to the quantity which is to be compared, feedback systems are designated as torque-balance, force-balance and position-balance systems. Voltages and currents take the place of variables in the case of electronic signal processing amplifiers. Some other systems like parallel-plate capacitor, moving coil assembly with permanent magnet and piezoelectric crystal are also employed in inverse transducers a feedback measuring systems. Here electrical output and the pneumatic bellows with mechanical output in pneumatic systems. A parallel plate capacitor and piezoelectric crystal converts displacements into proportional voltages. A moving coil assembly with permanent magnet converts dc current to proportional torque. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-80730009461694409922011-11-23T00:08:00.001-08:002011-11-23T00:08:54.150-08:00Data transmission in computers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">The different technologies used for the data transmission in computers are magnetic media, twisted pair, coaxial cable and optic fiber cable. In the magnetic media method, data is written in a magnetic tape which is transported physically to receiving machine and then data is retrieved. This method is not advisable in geosynchronous communication satellite system and high bandwidth applications. This method is also not economical. The delay characteristics of magnetic tape are poor. Twisted pair is another method of data transmission which consists of two insulated copper wires. Helical shaped wires looks like a DNA molecule and acts like a fine antenna. This is widely used in telephone system where twisted pairs can be operated several kilometers without any amplification. For very long distance operations, repeaters have to be employed. Transmission of both analog and digital signals can be carried out using twisted pairs. The most commonly used twisted pair cabling varieties are category 3 and category 5. Category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires gently twisted together. Category 5 resembles with category 3 but have more twists. This reduces crosstalk and improves signal quality and transmission speed. Coaxial cables are stiff copper wires surrounded by an insulating material. This allows longer distance transmission at a higher speed. Other advantages of coaxial cables are wide bandwidth and noise immunity. The optic fibers are nowadays used commonly for transmission of data in computers. </span></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-84715892329000424532011-11-04T23:14:00.001-07:002011-11-04T23:14:24.143-07:00Phase sensitive detector<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">A phase sensitive detector is a device which is used for the detection and measurement of the amplitude and phase of a periodic signal with respect to another reference signal of the same frequency. Phase sensitive detectors are also known as lock-in amplifiers and synchronous demodulators. These devices are widely used by electronics engineers and nanotechnology researchers. Instrumentation is a little bit complex here since both amplitude and phase of the signal carries information. In an ac bridge network, the excitation voltage of the bridge is acting as the reference signal and unknown impedance carries both amplitude and phase components. A phase sensitive detector consists of a signal generator, amplifier, reference signal generator, inverter, adder, low-pass filter and meter. Nowadays phase sensitive detectors have an additional provision for shifting the phase of the reference signal until a maximum or zero reading is obtained. For performing some special tasks, low-pass filter can be replaced by an integrator. </span></span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-48333429709817836692011-10-29T00:04:00.001-07:002011-10-29T00:04:18.980-07:00Logic analyzers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">For generating and analyzing logic event states, we can employ logic analyzers, logic generators and logic test systems. The logic generator provides excitation to the circuits which is to be analyzed. The logic analyzer analyzes the timing of the digital/logical function and sequence of complex digital events including detection and display. The main four parts of a logic analyzer are data acquisition, data storage, control and triggering and display format. Data acquisition involves reception of data from the test system with variable threshold level for various types of logics such as TTL, ECL and CMOS. An analyzer clock determines the asynchronous mode acquisition sampling rate. The data storage unit stores all the parallel input data. The method of ‘word recognition’ is used for control and triggering in logic analyzers. For external triggering, a separate trigger input is provided. Display formats used here are timing diagram, histogram and state table. Logic probe which is a small hand held instrument can also be used for measuring and analyzing logic events and states.</span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-87943954799816816922011-10-12T01:06:00.000-07:002011-10-12T01:06:14.084-07:00MOS memory devices<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Packing density is greater for metal oxide semiconductor transistors and hence it is preferred over bipolar junction transistors while designing a semiconductor chip. There are two types of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors- n channel MOSFET or NMOS and complementary MOSFET or CMOS. Both NMOS and CMOS devices have immense applications. NMOS is commonly used and an integral part of very large scale integration (VLSI) circuits. NMOS devices can also be used as NOR gate circuits. The memory chips developed by using NMOS devices are ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, SRAM, BSRAM and DRAM. ROM is read only memory and preferred in personal computers. PROM is programmable read only memory where ‘erase’ option is unfeasible. EPROM is erasable programmable read only memory with erasing option. EEPROM is electrically erasable programmable read only memory. SRAM is static random access memory. BSRAM is bipolar static random access memory and DRAM is dynamic random access memory.</span> </div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-32929001393347272812011-09-13T23:17:00.000-07:002011-09-13T23:17:03.281-07:00Programming languages and tools<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSEM%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSEM%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSEM%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]--> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Computer programs are usually written in programming languages. A programming language is considered to be good if it can enable the programmer to give directions to the computer without error. General purpose computer languages are FORTRAN, C and PASCAL. There exist many similarities between real-time languages and general purpose languages. Both are readable, have constructs which enhances comprehensibility, can be used in different hardware platforms and easy to debug and compile. Programmer initially should specify priorities and run-time requirements. A good real-time language makes it possible to write device interfaces effectively. In real-time systems, software is complex than the hardware. Chance for software design fault is more compared to hardware design fault. Here programmers have the freedom to use comments throughout the program. Another important aspect here is that the programmer has the option of specifying minimum acceptable precision of each variable.<o:p> </o:p></span></div></m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-70939160737811204782011-08-15T22:07:00.000-07:002011-08-15T22:07:19.418-07:00Computer integrated manufacturing<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span closure_uid_wp7qvy="109" style="color: red; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: large;">The main components of a computer integrated manufacturing system are marketing, product design, planning, purchase, manufacturing engineering, factory automation hardware, warehousing, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>finance and information management. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first component marketing division identifies the product requirement. The product design department designs the database required for the product. This database gets enriched by the planning division. Purchase orders, follow-ups, receiving the items, inspection of the product, quality assessment of the products, distribution to retail stores etc. are carried out by purchase division. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Manufacturing engineering department analyses the database and product performance and then suggests positive modifications. For the modification, factory automation hardware is used. Warehousing is the function involving storage and retrieval of raw materials, components, finished goods as well as shipment of items. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finance division deals with money related matters. Production scheduling, database management, communication, integration etc. are handled by information management division.</span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-31882865764240285872011-06-24T23:46:00.001-07:002011-06-24T23:46:03.639-07:00Printed circuit board<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSEM%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSEM%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSEM%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Printed circuit board (PCB) is widely used for the interconnection of various electronic components in a single circuit. It consists of an insulating base substrate. A metallic circuitry is formed upon this substrate by photochemical methods. The main parts of a printed circuit board are tracks, lands and holes. PCB allows user to minimize the usage of wires, saving the space and time and to be very much reliable. This method is quite economical and there is no chance for any sort of loose connection. The four types of PCBs are single sided PCB, double sided PCB, multilayered PCB and flexible PCB. Single sided PCB is economical and is very easy to construct. Here copper is coated on one side and the entire circuitry is accommodated there. In double sided PCB, copper is coated on both the sides. Multilayered PCB is constructed by careful alignment of two or more PCBs. Flexible PCB is a highly flexible conventional rigid PCB. The different steps involved in the construction of PCB are preprocessing, photolithography, etching, stripping, tin plating, drilling, testing, loading of components and soldering.</span></b></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-77456671588802044852011-06-08T03:56:00.001-07:002011-06-08T03:56:29.205-07:00Electromechanical relays<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">In electromechanical relays, whenever the actuating quantity surpasses a predetermined value, a torque is developed. This torque causes the moving element of the relay to travel and close a set of contacts in order to energize the trip coil of the circuit-breaker. A few examples of electromechanical relays are attracted armature type, polarized moving iron type, induction disc type, induction cup type, moving coil type and printed disc type. Attracted armature type relay operates through a specially designed armature. This armature is attracted to the poles of an electromagnet through a plunger which is drawn into a solenoid. Here both ac and dc operations are possible. In polarized moving iron relay, polarization is achieved with the help of a permanent magnet and this increases the sensitivity of the relay. Electromagnetic induction principle is employed in induction disc relays. A disc is the moving element here and only ac operation is possible here. Two types of structures exist here. They are shaded pole structure and wattmetric structure. In shaded pole structure, disc is placed between the shaded and unshaded poles of the relay. Wattmetric structure is used in watt-hour meters. In induction cup relay, rotor iron is stationary and rotor conductor rotating. Moving coil relay is dependent on dc actuating quantity and hence is very sensitive. In printed disc relays, a permanent magnet is used to produce a magnetic field. </span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-40291581995061608672011-06-01T03:21:00.001-07:002011-06-01T03:21:29.580-07:00Karnaugh maps<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CSSE%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><b><o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #bf9000; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Boolean functions and its functioning can be explained well using graphs. This method was first developed by Veitch. Later Karnaugh modified this very effectively and since then it is called as Karnaugh maps. This method involves a diagrammatic representation of a Boolean function. Normally a truth table is used to represent the function of a Boolean function. A Karnaugh map is a geometrical configuration of cells such that each of the n-tuples corresponding to the row of a truth table uniquely identifies a cell on the map. The exact functional values of these n-tuples are placed as entries in the cells. If the functional value is ‘0’, a ‘0’ is placed in the associated cell. If the functional value is ‘1’, a ‘1’ is placed as cell entry. In this way, we can represent a truth table diagrammatically. In a Karnaugh map, two cells are physically adjacent within the configuration if and only if their respective n-tuples differ in exactly one element. There exist one-variable, two-variable, three-variable and four-variable karnaugh maps. These maps consists of 2, 4, 8 and 16 cells respectively. </span></b></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-33197057157155675912011-05-23T01:44:00.001-07:002011-05-23T01:45:24.396-07:00Hamming code<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #ffd966; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">While transferring information between two points, possibility of occurrence of errors cannot be ruled out. It is always desirable to locate the error and detect the origin. The ability to detect errors is inbuilt in some codes. In some other codes, additional bits are added to the information to serve the purpose of detection of errors. When error detecting codes are not used to represent coded information or when information appears as conventional binary numbers, error detection is achieved by the addition of a parity bit. The minimum distance of a code is an important entity in code detection and correction. It is the smallest distance between any two valid code groups appearing in the coding scheme. Single-error correction is achieved when minimum distance of a code is three. Same code can also be used for double error detection. If minimum distance of a code is greater than 3, a provision for additional error-detecting and error-correcting can be enabled. Hamming code is an excellent coding scheme for tackling single error correction. Here several parity bits are accommodated in a code group. </span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-84236524128003344172011-05-16T21:25:00.001-07:002011-05-16T21:26:25.050-07:00Integrated services digital network (ISDN)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #ffe599; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;">ISDN provides end-to end digital connectivity among user devices of different types of functions. Devices and functions include telephones, computers, video signals, audio signals, telephone etc. ISDN integrates voice, video, audio and data transmission in a single communication link. ISDN works over copper wiring and a loop is designed to carry digital signals. A central office has to be equipped with ISDN capable peripherals. For the transmission of information, a subscriber loop composed of channels named D, B, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>H etc. is used. B channel is bearer channel, a basic user channel at 64 kbps. D channel is data channel which carries signaling information to control circuit switching calls at the user interface at 16 or 64 kbps. H channel is higher bit rate channel for multimedia applications. The two types of ISDN service interface are basic rate interface (BRI) and primary rate interface (PRI). BRI is designed for residential subscribers which operate over existing local loop wiring. PRI is designed for business subscribers and requires a wide band communication medium. </span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1818841363859655237.post-53188725592363895982011-05-05T03:01:00.000-07:002011-05-05T03:01:38.896-07:00Fuel cell<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="color: red; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, gasoline etc. are commonly used fuels. A fuel cell converts the chemical energy of the fuel and an oxidant into electricity. An anode and cathode do exist for a fuel cell. Fuel undergoes oxidation at anode. The oxidant gets reduced at the cathode. Fuel cells are efficient and harmless. Its operation is silent and needed very less attention for operation. Requirement of recharging of the cell is absolutely nil and is very much eco-friendly. On the basis of temperature of operation, there are three types of fuel cells- they are low temperature fuel cells, moderate temperature fuel cells and high temperature fuel cells. On the basis of electrolytes used there are six varieties of fuel cells- they are alkaline fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells and biochemical fuel cells. These fuel cells are very important in space research and produces energy and water in a spacecraft.</span></div></div>NACHIKETHAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09791018431788679316noreply@blogger.com0